eindhoven archeology centre

Archeologisch Centrum Eindhoven

general
excavations
books
the staff
links
colofon

The excavation of the choir and graveyard of St. Catharine's Church in Eindhoven

Nico Arts, Steffen Baetsen, Marga Lambregtse, Joeske Nollen & Linda Vega

The following is a translation of the interim report which appeared in the Dutch archaeological magazine 'Westerheem. Tijdschrift voor de Nederlandse archeologie' 54 (2005), pp. 327-338.

In 2002 there was a small-scale excavation on a square, where until 1860 part of the town's only medieval church stood. Just 20 cm below street level, were not only brick foundations but also numerous human skeletons with their associated preserved DNA. The archaeological record was deteriorating rapidly and therefore a complete excavation of the site was begun in 2005. This article is a summary of the research aims and also of the results from the first 150 days of the dig (the period till the middle of September 2005).

Introduction

Fig. 1.
A map of the town of Eindhoven by Jacob van Deventer dating from about 1560. Superimposed are the contours of the cover sand ridge on which the town was built and the location of the marketplace and the church.

Eindhoven was created as a new town at the beginning of the 13^th Century. It was founded nearby a castle on a motte (Arts 2000) The town at first consisted of a rectangular market square, still the market these days, surrounded by rectangular wooden houses. These houses were traditionally built founded on wooden piles driven into the ground. The long, narrow plots behind the houses were used by artisans for work, which to start with was mainly connected with the various phases of textile production (Arts 1999). These plots also contained water wells made from hollowed out tree trunks. Some years later, perhaps several decennia later, this new town went through a phase of expansion. The houses were no longer founded on wooden piles but on horizontal beams which leave no trace for archaeologists. The wells were also no longer made of hollow tree trunks but mainly of recycled wine casks and sometimes of sods. It was during this second building phase of Eindhoven that the church was built on virgin ground (fig. 1). Eindhoven finally got its town charter in 1232 which formalized its actual status.

St. Catharine's Church

The 13^th century church of St. Catharine's (fig. 2) was a daughter of the church in Woensel, two kilometres to the north. In 1399, the Bishop of Liege raised it to the status of a collegiate church, which assured its independence from the church in Woensel. In that same year, St. Catharine's became the seat of the Kempenland Deaconry, which made the priest the most important cleric of a large area stretching from Blericum, near 's-Hertogenbosch in the north, to Peer to the south in modern-day Belgium. In the years 1486 to 1554, the church suffered damage from plundering, fire and storms. After the Treaty of Munster in 1648, which was the formal cessation of the Eighty Years' War, public celebration of catholic mass was forbidden in the jurisdiction of 's-Hertogenbosch. St. Catharine's became a Protestant church. In 1793, the French army took possession of the church using it, in turn as a courtroom, horse stables, bread bakery, living quarters and storage depot. The Catholics got their church back in 1807, renovated the building and started using it again for services in 1810. The church was extended in the period 1823-1834. However it remained too small for the expanding population of the town. Finally it was decided to build a new church on the same site. The original church was demolished in 1860 and a new church built, which was taken into use in 1867. The new church was built more or less on the site of the old church, however not covering the old choir and part of the graveyard. The foundations of the choir and some of the graveyard came to lie underneath the square in front of the entrance to the present-day church.

Fig. 2.
The medieval church in Eindhoven seen from the northwest. Drawing by Isaac van Ostade (1621-1649); J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California, USA.

The 2002 excavation

In Eindhoven, there has been extensive re-building of large swathes of the medieval town centre, the shopping centre, since 1989. Subterranean car parks, new shopping malls, office and residential blocks have all been developed in this 25 hectare plot. Before each new wave of development fever, large-scale excavations were carried out. So far, the total area of these digs accounts for some 20% of the medieval town centre. By the end of 2006, this metamorphosis of the town centre will be completed with the construction of a brand new St. Catharine's Square.With the intention of getting some inspiration for the design for the new square, the town planners asked for a small-scale excavation on the square in front of the church, which was carried out in 2002. The aim of this dig was to establish how much of the foundations of the medieval church was preserved in the ground and to what depth they reached. This excavation, consisting of a trench of only 3.2 x 8.5 meters, was successful (Arts 2002a, 2002b).Immediately under the paving of the square, which was planted with trees, were not only the brick foundations of the medieval church but also large quantities of human bones. The test excavation, more or less coincidentally, cut right across the choir of the medieval church. There were a large number of burials within the choir, which could be distinguished in three distinct strata. These layers had been created by raising the church floor level. The total depth containing burials and the underlying burials is some two meters. The lower two levels date from the Late Middle Ages (fig. 3).

Fig. 3.
A cross-section of the 13^th century choir based on the results from the 2002 dig. The circles represent individual burials.

In the test excavation of 2002, only the top burial layer was thoroughly investigated. In the middle burial layer only one grave was excavated. This being the only one that was completely within the bounds of the dig. The other burials were only partially contained within the perimeters of the dig. The aim in digging up the skeleton from the middle layer was to ascertain how well preserved the bones were. The skeleton turned out to be that of a ten-year-old. A pierced silver coin was found lying on this skeleton; attached to which were a tiny scrap of textile and a few threads of silk. The coin was a Venetian groat dating from 1202-1342. It was not possible to date it more accurately because the rim was so worn away. The sex of the child was impossible to assess from the bones. However, investigations at the Laboratory for Forensic Genetics and Molecular Archaeology in Louvain University showed that some DNA had been preserved in a tooth. This meant that the sex could be determined and it was a boy. This lead to the development of a plastic doll with a forensically reconstructed face, which was given the name 'Marcus of Eindhoven'. He has accidentally come to be the personification of the medieval history of the town (fig. 4). The existence of the lowest burial level only became apparent after the skeleton from the middle layer had been excavated and the contours of two more burials came to light in the undisturbed cover sand.

Fig. 4.
Forensic reconstruction of 'Marcus van Eindhoven', the ten year old boy from about 1300 whose skeleton was excavated in the choir of St. Catharine's Church. Photo: Ruud Balk.

Conservation or excavation?

Following the discovery of ancient DNA in the ground beneath Eindhoven, it became necessary to find out how best to treat such an exclusive source of information. DNA isn't just a source of information about a person's sex but also about family relationships, origins and a variety of genetically determined characteristics. Ancient DNA is of particularly great importance for Eindhoven because there is almost no archival record about the medieval period due to a fire in the 15^th century.
DNA is a rich source of information for archaeologists but has yet hardly been tapped into in The Netherlands. The lack of knowledge about the possibilities of DNA research in Dutch archaeology at present is a result of suspicion and doubt. This is understandable, because ancient DNA can easily be contaminated by modern DNA from the archaeologists and physical anthropologists who deal with the bones. Thus arises the necessity of taking samples for DNA research under forensic conditions.
For the Eindhoven church square there were two possibilities; conservation or excavation. If conservation was opted for, then measures would have to be taken to prevent any further deterioration of the archaeological record. The deterioration was being caused by liquid seeping downwards from street level, the growth of the roots of the trees planted in 1982, the continually oscillating ground water levels and pressure from the earth above. DNA dissolves easily in water and the changing water levels would be disastrous for its conservation. These water level changes are a consequence of building deep parking garages in the town centre whereby the water-table is first lowered and then later returned to its original level. It's as if there was a slow-motion wave machine at work underground in Eindhoven. It hardly needs to be explained that the tree roots were catastrophic for any chance of conserving the archaeological record. It was already established that the roots grow preferentially in and through the bones and the thicker roots were completely pulverising them. The weight of the earth, especially from a heavily used square such as that in front of the church, also has catastrophic effects on skeletal remains. The 2002 excavation had already demonstrated that skulls were collapsing due to the pressure from above.
The advice from various institutions such as the Dutch National Service for Archaeological Heritage and the Forensic Laboratory for DNA Research at the University of Leiden was to preserve the archaeological information by means of an excavation. A pertinent remark in their advice was the near impossibility of monitoring all the future building activities in a busy town centre such as that of Eindhoven. Furthermore, they pointed out the impossibility of indefinitely conserving DNA in the ground.
All these factors led to the decision to carry out a complete excavation. The most important aspect here is not the foundations of the church itself, but the threat of losing the ancient DNA and the disintegration of the human remains due to the action of the tree roots and the pressure from the ground above.

The excavation

The excavation has three basic archaeological research themes; the architecture and history of the church, the burials inside and outside of the church and the archaeological finds. There is an additional aspect, that of medical research. This research concerns a mutation of human DNA (CCR5-delta-32), that in modern humans protects against HIV/Aids and the idea that it may be the same mutation that offered protection against the plague and smallpox. 10% of present-day Europeans have this mutation and it is hardly present in other populations. The theory of geneticists is that this mutation existed in a very small proportion of the population in the past, but as result of the plague increased in occurrence from 1350. In the context of HIV/Aids research, the geneticists are very interested in how this mutation came to be present in increased numbers of people. An answer to this question may be to be found in the DNA from the burials in and around Eindhoven's St. Catharine's Church. People were buried here from about 1225 up to 1860, these being the years before, during and after the plague epidemics.
In March 2005, the preparations for the excavation commenced with chopping down the trees planted in 1982, putting up a tent over the area of the trench and removing the paving stones. The formal opening of the dig was on 22 April when the municipal archaeology website (www.archeologie.eindhoven.nl) was officially up and running. The excavation covers an area of about 11 x 31 metres and will go to a depth of around 2 metres. The actual digging is all done by hand using spatula, brush, trowel and spade. A total of about one million kilo's of earth will pass through our hands. All of it will be sieved; the contents of the graves are sieved on site, the rest is stored in 'big bags' and taken away to be sieved at a later date. The site is manned six days a week by a team from the Archaeology Centre Eindhoven.

Fig. 5.
An overview of the site in July 2005.
Photo: Laurens Mulkens.

The team comprises members of the Eindhoven Archaeology Centre, staff from the ArcheoService Foundation, personnel from other institutes such as the Archaeology Centre of Amsterdam Free University, volunteers from the local Archaeology Club, Kempen and Peelland and students from Dutch and Belgian Universities. So far some 60 people have been involved in the dig (fig. 5) Of the 2,250 working days of the excavation so far, 600 are accounted for by volunteers and 250 by students. The activities are due to be completed by the summer of 2006. The work is carried out from north to south along the trench, by removing 5cm layers at a time. Each newly revealed surface is recorded on a 1:50 scale plan, including every feature and small find. Primary burials are individually drawn to a scale of 1:10. The working methods of the excavation are drawn up in a research programme which includes 100 research questions (Arts ed. 2005)

Church Foundations

Several building phases can be distinguished from the brick church foundations which have so far been uncovered. (fig. 6) The oldest building phase is that of the gothic choir of the 13^th Century church. This church had walls one metre thick and the interior was 7 metres across. The foundations go down to about 180 cm below street level. The University of Delft will be carrying out photo luminescence dating techniques on bricks of the lowest levels. One remarkable discovery was of a hacked out hollow in the end wall of the choir, positioned in line with the central axis of the church. The function of this cavity is as yet a mystery.The original church was extended, both to the north and to the south. To the north there is a half gothic addition which supplied the church with a second tower. The remains of these brick walls are also one metre thick and probably date from about 1500. They rest on footings of brick rubble which reach about one metre below street level. The extension to the south of the 13^th century choir is only partially contained in the trench. The only part visible are the foundations of the most easterly wall. This is presumably the end wall of a third choir. The brick walls of both the 13^th century walls and the more recent ones were laid in alternating courses of stretchers and headers.Several patches of brick rubble have been found, particularly in the northern choir. These are generally connected to various building activities from around 1800. Areas of hard stone floor and a chunk from a gravestone were found laid on one of these strips of rubble on which a wall had been built. Inside the 13^th century choir were the foundations of a deep brick-built plateau of 1.9 x 3.1 metres, which was the altar. These foundations probably date from around 1500. Underneath the altar foundations was a round pit filled with brick rubble. It would seem that this pit contained some object which was removed when the altar was built. This could have been a reliquary, perhaps a large pottery vessel.There was also one simple tomb in the oldest choir which was just four brick walls 1.1 x 2.4 m, without a floor. It probably dates from the 17^th or 18^th century.

Fig. 6.
Plan of the topmost layer of the excavation of St. Catherine's Church, per september 2005.

A: frontage of the modern church,
B: excavation tent,
C: test trench from 2002,
D: current trench,
1.13^th century foundations,
2.foundations from about 1500,
3.walls demolished about 1500,
4.rubble footings from about 1800,
5.foundation of altar from about 1500,
6.tomb from 17^th or 18^th century,
7.niche in the wall in line with the axis of the church,
8.altar cavity,
9.round disturbance, a possible well,
10.foundation end wall,
11.foundations of the 16^th & 17^th century extensions.

Burials

It is quite remarkable that the medieval human remains in Eindhoven have been preserved in such good condition. In general, in Brabant, the low chalk levels in the sandy ground mean that bone disintegrates and leaves, at best, only a shadowy silhouette in the earth. The degree of preservation of the human remains in Eindhoven can be explained from the history of St. Catherine's Church. The church has suffered so much damage from war-time and natural disasters, that large amounts of building rubble containing chalk fell onto the ground. This chalky residue will have prevented the calcium levels falling so rapidly.
Numerous human burials are being uncovered both inside and outside the limits of the church. (fig. 7)

Fig. 7.
Excavating a skeleton takes several days work.Photo: Laurens Mulkens.

We distinguish two groups of bones; primary burials where the bones are still in anatomically correct positions, and secondary burials where there are individual bones, or bones collected together in charnel pits. During the excavation these bones are studied by human remains specialists in the field laboratory. Here they pay particular attention to registering details of the person's sex, age at death, the state of their teeth, their height at the time of death, changes in their bones due to disease and anatomical anomalies. The deceased comprise members of the local elite, who were probably buried within the confines of the church itself, and the locals, buried in the churchyard. These two groups will be compared to each other. The expectations are that there will be differences attributable to the different life-styles of rich and poor. The human remains from Eindhoven will also be compared to those found elsewhere in the Netherlands (Baetsen 2001, Clevis and Constandse-Westermann n.d. [1992], Janssen and Maat 1998, Maat c.s. 1984, 2002, Pot c.s. 1989, Pot and De Groot 1989)
By the middle of September, the remains of some 400 people had been excavated, of which about 150 were primary burials. The expectations are that many times this number will have been recorded by the end of the dig. Since the larger half of the excavation has yet to be completed, and thus many more skeletons have yet to be recovered, we will not give any general assessment of the human remains already studied. However, three cases, interesting due to anatomical details or situation, will be described.
Almost all the persons, so far uncovered, lie buried with their faces to the east. The reason for this is that it was believed that the resurrection of Jesus Christ would be to the east, and that even after death one should be able to see it happen. The only burial thus far with the opposite orientation was found in the tomb in the choir. This was probably a priest, because priests were required to address their congregation at the resurrection and to do so would only have to stand up to be facing them. The skeletal remains indeed appear to be those of a man, who died aged between 65 and 78. He suffered from stiff joints, indicated by the conversion of cartilage structures and tendons into bone. It is also remarkable that this tomb contained the remains of a woman, about 70 years old, and at least four children of ages seven, three, one and three months. It is not yet clear what possible family relationship they had but DNA research will shed some light on the matter.
Amongst the secondary skulls found at the site, was one of a woman suffering from Paget's disease (fig. 8).

Fig. 8.
Skull showing clear signs of Paget's disease.Photo: Laurens Mulkens.

People suffering from this disease are almost always over forty years old. The disease is characterized by an increased rate of bone turnover and rapid, irregular local bone formation. This can be seen as sponginess in the bone marrow, thicker bones and a general disturbed and enlarged impression. The bone lacks calcium and is less strong and therefore breaks more easily. This disease manifests itself mostly in the sacrum, thigh bones, skull, sternum and, or backbones. Thickening of the skull leads an enlargement of the head (Roberts and Manchester 1995, pp. 184-190, Ortner 2003, pp. 435-440). Symptoms include pain in the stricken bone regions. People suffering from Paget's disease feel tired and drained and give a general impression of lethargy. It can also happen that the nerves in the brain and at the base of the skull get trapped, which can lead to deafness or dementia. Several of the skeletons found in Eindhoven show signs of wounds. One adult in particular (fig. 9) had a head-wound.

Fig. 9.
Skull with a gash to the forehead from a sharp object.Photo: Laurens Mulkens.

This was a vertical gash to the forehead which must have been caused by a blow from a sharp and heavy object, for example, a sword or an axe. The person in question will have had a severe headache but survived the blow. The external surface of the skull shows new bone formation which indicates where it was healing, and this can only occur if the person was still alive.

DNA and other bio-chemical research

Samples of DNA will be taken from as many of the burials as possible. This is done under forensic conditions in our 'DNA' tent, using sterile suits, face mask, clean tools and sterile tubes (fig. 10).

Fig. 10.
Excavating in a little tent in forensic conditions. Photo: Laurens Mulkens.

By mid-September 2005, some 500 samples had been taken, these being extracted teeth. They are temporarily stored in a freezer at - 20°C. We expect the DNA research to start in the spring of 2006. This DNA research will attempt to establish family relationships, the origins of the people and their sex. The medical research, as previously outlined, will be carried out at the same time. This DNA investigation will be carried out by the Forensic Laboratory for DNA Research at the Medical Centre of Leiden University and one or two other universities.Soil samples are also taken from all the primary burials for research into the remains of parasites, such as whip-worms and round-worms. In this case the samples are taken from the abdominal region, the earth is sieved and examined under the microscope. This investigation may produce information about hygiene, sicknesses, diet, the flora and fauna of the locality and establish whether individuals had made any long-distance journeys which would account for any exotic parasites found. This research is being carried out in our own field laboratory.A further branch of research, which has yet to start, is to establish the levels of copper and lead traces in the bones. In the period from about 1500 to 1800, a great deal of the pottery used in Eindhoven had copper and lead glazes. It is possible that traces of these elements got into the body from their usage for cooking and eating. The aim is to try to establish the difference in levels of copper and lead, before, during and after this period. This research will be conducted by the Technical University of EIndhoven.

Finds

Large quantities of finds have already been collected from within the perimeters of the church and outside it. Clearly the biggest category is that of human remains. Further, there are remains of the church building, such as floor tiles, stained glass, worked stone, pieces of gravestones; ceramics and a variety of metal artefacts. It is surprising how many coins and medallions there are. The churchyard has now become the richest find place of coins in the Eindhoven town centre. This was actually to be expected because churchyards are often the source of quantities of coins. A number of coins were grave goods found either in the hand or mouth of the skeleton. There have also been a few small collections of coins found, which were apparently buried purposely in the consecrated ground of the churchyard.Amongst the medallions from St. Catherine's Church are two of lead (fig. 11).

Fig. 11.
Lead medallions depicting the attributes of St. Catherine; a sword and a wheel. Photo: Nico Arts.

One of these has a sword on one side and a wheel on the other. The other one has just a wheel on one side and nothing on the other. A recent survey of medallions throughout The Netherlands includes none of this type (Pelsdonk 2003). The sword and wheel are attributes of St. Catharine. So it would appear that these examples were specially cast for Eindhoven's St. Catharine's Church to be used as alms.

The public and the media

There is a constant stream of information available to the public. Firstly there is our website but the public is also welcome to visit the site of the dig and watch the work at first hand. The presence of the public at the site required making a compromise between accessibility and safety but with as large as possible access to the various sorts of information available. There is an enormous amount of interest from the public and professionals. On average we have about 500 visitors each week (fig. 12).

Fig. 12. Schoolchildren at the visitors' centre. Photo: Laurens Mulkens.

The tent which covers the site has a window wall where visitors can watch the excavation six days a week. Visitors can always ask for extra information from the staff running the information centre. Groups of primary and secondary school children are regularly given guided tours. It is also possible to combine a visit to the excavation with a visit to the Historic Open Air Museum, also in Eindhoven, which provides a complete day's archaeology.By a stroke of luck, it was possible for us to take over a former restaurant right next to the site, which now houses the field laboratory and visitors centre. In the field laboratory, visitors can watch the physical anthropologists at work and also see how the finds are processed. In the visitors centre is a small exhibition which provides information about the various aspects of the excavation and this includes audio-visual and interactive elements. The most recent, interesting finds are also always on display.Those interested in following the activities from their armchairs, can do so via our website; www.archaeology.eindhoven.nl. There are three webcams following the activities in both the field laboratory and the trench. On the website there is also a photo diary which gives up-to-date news.The local press regularly reports on the latest discoveries, sometimes with full-page articles in the newspaper. Regional and national television and radio programmes also ensure the public can keep up to date. On 26^th March 2005, the Dutch television programme 'TweeVandaag' and various other news media announced the opening of the dig. The excavation has also attracted attention from the international media; Reuters, London has been to visit twice, the Canadian national newspaper, The Globe and Mail, dedicated a full-page article to the dig and both CNN and The New York Times have covered it. The emphasis is always on the importance for the medical world of the DNA research and the enormity of the scale of the excavation. International researchers prefer to come to the site itself, which all in all means a great deal of interest in the excavation.

Conclusion

The excavation of the site of St. Catharine's Church will provide a great deal of information about the population of Eindhoven during the years from about 1225 to 1860. The application of DNA research is an innovative aspect in archaeology. Since it will involve many hundreds of individuals, from a period of some six centuries, the analysis of the DNA results will be a complex and challenging business.Not only is the DNA research interesting but also all the other information from the foundations of the church, the human remains and in particular all the other classes of finds will provide a treasure trove of information about a variety of aspects such as building history, demographics and Christian rituals.The excavation is due to be completed in the summer of 2006. By the autumn a book for the general public will be published which will contain the preliminary results. The final results are to be presented in an exhibition and final publications in 2009.

References

Arts, N., 1994: De archeologische resultaten van het Heuvelterrein. In N. Arts (ed.), Sporen onder de Kempische stad. Archeologie, ecologie en vroegste geschiedenis van Eindhoven, 1225-1500. Eindhoven, pp. 313-317.

Arts, N., 1999: Fulling-throughs, other artisanal remains and the present state of urnan archaeology in medieval Eindhoven and Helmond (Southern Netherlands). In M. Dewilde, A. Ervynck en A. Wielmans (eds.), Ypres and the Medieval Cloth Industry in Flanders. Archaeological and Historical Contributions (Archeologie in Vlaanderen Monografie 2). Asse-Zellik, pp. 177-188.

Arts, N., 2000: Het mottekasteel Ten Hage en het klooster Mariënhage te Woensel-Eindhoven. Jaarboek Eindhoven 2000. Eindhoven, pp. 69-94.

Arts, N., 2002a: Hoe God verdween uit Eindhoven. Het koor van de middeleeuwse Sint-Catharinakerk in Eindhoven. Een verslag van het verkennend archeologisch onderzoek in februari en maart 2002. Eindhoven.

Arts, N., 2002b: Marcus van Eindhoven. Een archeologische biografie van een middeleeuws kind. Utrecht.

Arts, N. (ed.), 2005: Archeologisch onderzoek Catharinakerk Eindhoven EHV-CK-05/06, 2005-2009: programma van eisen & plan van aanpak. Eindhoven.

Baetsen, S., 2001: Graven in de Grote Kerk. Het fysisch-antropologisch onderzoek van de graven van de St. Laurenskerk van Alkmaar. Alkmaar (Rapporten over de Alkmaarse Monumentenzorg en Archeologie 8).

Clevis, H. en T. Constandse-Westermann (eds.), zonder jaartal (1992): De doden vertellen. Opgraving Broerenkerk te Zwolle 1987-1988. Kampen.

Janssen, H.A.M. en G.J.R. Maat, 1998: Kannunikken begraven in de stiftskapel van de Sint Servaas te Maastricht 1070-1521 na Chr. Een paleopathologisch onderzoek.Leiden (Barge's Anthropologica 1).

Maat, G.J.R., G.T. Haneveld, M.R.M van den Brink en W.J. Mulder, 1984: A quantative study on pathological changes in human bones from the 17th and 18th centuries excavated in the 'Hoogland Church', Leiden. In G.T. Haneveld, W.R.K. Perizonius en P.J. Janssens (red.), Proceedings Paleopathology Association, 4th European Meeting Middelburg/Antwerpen 1982.Utrecht, p. 140-148.

Maat, G.J.R., R.W. Mastwijk en H. Sarfatij: 1998. Een fysisch antropologisch onderzoek van begravenen bij het Minderbroeders-Klooster te Dordrecht, circa 1275-1572 AD. Amersfoort (Rapportage Archeologische Monumentenzorg 67).

Maat, G.J.R., R.W. Mastwijk en M.A. Jonker, 2002: Citizens buried in the 'Sint Janskerkhof' of the 'Sint Jans' Cathedral of 's-Hertogenbosch in the Netherlands. Leiden (Barge's Anthropologica 8).

Ortner, D.J., 2003: Identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains. London.

Pelsdonk, J.E.L., 2003: Pennincxkens van Loode. Een overzicht naar in Nederland gevonden loden muntachtige voorwerpen uit de middeleeuwen en de 16^e eeuw, aangevuld met een overzicht van de modernere penningen. Goudswaard.

Pot, Tj. En H.L. de Groot, 1989: Graven en begravenen in Utrechtse grond, van circa 1200-1800. Opgravingen Vredenburg 1976, Rozenstraat 1988 (Nieuwe Daalstraat 1980-'81). Utrecht (Archeologisch Speurwerk in Utrecht V).

Pot, Tj. H.L. de Groot en C.A.M. van Rooijen, 1989: Het Sint Jobs Gasthuis (1504-1818) te Utrecht. Een deelonderzoek van het opgegraven skeletmateriaal van het kerkhof. Opgraving Nieuwe Daalstraat 1980-'81). Utrecht (Archeologisch Speurwerk in Utrecht III).

Roberts, Ch. En K. Manchester, 1995: The archaeology of disease. New York.

Eindhoven
Helmond
Regio